Tens of thousands of African women are employed in the export horticulture sector where fresh fruit, vegetables and cut flowers are grown for foreign, mainly European, markets. Many of these jobs are labour intensive and insecure, and characterised by long hours, hazardous working conditions and low pay. To protect the reputation of their businesses, European supermarkets and international and national trade associations have introduced ‘ethical trade’ codes which set standards for labour practices. Can these codes bring real improvement to these women’s lives?

A two year multi-institutional research project co-ordinated by the UK’s Institute of Development Studies examined the employment conditions of workers, particularly women, in the export horticulture sector in South Africa, Kenya and Zambia. The research report highlights the gap between the requirements of the ethical trade codes and the reality of women work. It explores how the codes could be implemented in a more gender-sensitive and participative manner and the role that the different groups involved could play.

The export horticulture sector occupies a significant and fast growing place in the economies of the three countries. The sector is characterised by high levels of female and non-permanent (temporary, seasonal, casual, migrant and contract) employment particularly in the types of work done by women. For example, an estimated 75% of those employed in the Kenyan cut-flower industry are women and 65% hired on a non-permanent basis. Non-permanent and women workers report different experiences of work from their permanent male colleagues, as well as differing needs and concerns.

Job insecurity creates anxiety and increases vulnerability to abuse by those in power: job loss, sexual harassment and bribery are some of the issues that workers have to face. The study also reports:

• There are difficulties in balancing paid employment and family responsibilities because of long hours and compulsory overtime: women having to work overtime at very short notice leads to problems arranging for childcare and their personal safety is at risk when travelling home late at night.
• Insufficient wages do not meet even their basic needs: women who have sole responsibility towards their children, face problems funding childcare and school fees.
• There is discrimination against women in promotion to permanent, more skilled work and better paid work, as they are perceived to be more suitable for low skilled and flexible work: pregnant women are especially disadvantaged, making them hide their pregnancy in order to continue in work, which has health implications for themselves and their child.
• The lack of benefits, such as childcare facilities, maternity leave and sick pay, is a particular concern for many women and it is a major problem with many of the codes that the provision of these benefits is not covered in them.
• The lack of voice for women and non-permanent workers mean they are under-represented in trade unions and workers’ committees

If codes are to benefit workers they need to include non-permanent and women workers. Farm management in many cases is largely unaware of the problems that workers face due to poor communication channels and socio-cultural barriers and misconceptions. To effectively tackle these, the researchers recommend the following:

• Trade unions need to include non-permanent workers as members and promote gender equality.
• Importers and supermarkets should take specific measures to include non-permanent workers in the codes, work towards harmonisation of the codes, reward compliant producers and build steady relationships with producers to promote job security.
• Local and international non-governmental organisations (NGOs) can raise awareness about working conditions in developing countries and educate workers about codes, employment legislation and worker’s rights.
• a ‘multi-stakeholder’ initiative that brings together companies, trade unions, NGOs and government can be started to jointly discuss and make decisions on how to improve labour standards.

Successful implementation of the codes depends largely on creating awareness and change in attitude, especially to tackle gender issues. Employers and workers at all levels have to be involved in an ongoing process of awareness creation and consultation focused on enabling changes in attitudes and behaviour.

Source(s):
‘Ethical Trade in African Horticulture: gender, rights and participation’,  IDS Working Paper 223, by Sally Smith, Diane Auret, Stephanie Barrientos, Catherine Dolan, Karin Kleinbooi, Chosani Njobvu, Maggie Opondo and Anne Tallontire, June 2004.

id21 Research Highlight: 1st November 2004

Further Information:
Sally Smith
Institute of Development Studies
University of Sussex
Brighton BN1 9RE
UK

Tel: +44 (0) 1273 606261
Fax: +44 (0) 1273 621202
Contact the contributor: S.Smith@ids.ac.uk

Institute of Development Studies (IDS), UK

Other related links:
'Fresh off the shelf Gender and horticulture in Africa'

'Women working in global supply chains: are retailers trading away workers’ rights?'

'Richer or Poorer? Achievements and challenges for ethical trade'

''Stitched up. Can codes help women garment workers?'

'Corporate social responsibility: Central American women speak out'

'Raising gender sensitivity: ethical trade in African horticulture' from ELDIS

'Gender and codes of conduct: a case study from horticulture in South Africa' from ELDIS